MIKROBIOLOGI
POKOK BAHASAN
1.Pendahuluan : Sejarah mikrobiologi, mikroba menguntungkan dan merugikan, peranan mikroba dalam bidang peternakan.
2.Mempelajari organisme yang berukuran sangat kecil (mikroskopik) : bacteria, fungi, algae, protozoa, virus.
Klasifikasi, struktur dan morfologi.
3.Metabolisme mikroorganisme : metabolisme energi, protein, lemak, karbohidrat. Metabolisme aerob, anaerob dan fotosintesa
4.Reproduksi : Cara reproduksi, kurva pertumbuhan, faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi
5.Ekologi mikroorganisme pada lingkungan peternakan : Distribusi di alam, interaksi antar mikroorganisme dan organisme lainnya
6.Ekologi mikroorganisme pada industri peternakan : peranan mikroorganisme pada ternak dan produk hasil ternak
7.Metoda deteksi dan enumerasi mikroorganisme pada lingkungan dan industri peternakan
Dosen dan Penilaian
Dosen : 2 orang, kelas paralel
Penilaian :
Quis
Tugas
Praktikum
Ujian : UTS dan UAS
PUSTAKA
Pelczar, Jr., Chan, E.C.S, Krieg, N.R. 1987. Microbiology. McGrraw-Hill Book Company. New York
Tortora, G.J., Funke, B.R., Case, C.L. 2001.Microbiology an Introduction. Addison Wesley Longman Inc. New York.
Jay, J.M. 2000. Modern Food Microbiology. Chapman & Hall. New York
Jurnal : www.asm.org
Microorganism & Microbiology
Microorganism
•Living things which individually are too small to be seen with the naked eye.
•
•All of the following may be considered microorganisms:
–bacteria (eubacteria, archaebacteria)
–fungi (yeasts, molds)
–protozoa
–microscopic algae
–viruses
–various parasitic worms
•
Microbiology
Study of microorganisms
Foundation of modern biotechnology
Among the many specialized fields of microbiology
-Virology, Mycology, Bacteriology, Immunology,
Microbial Ecology, Biotechnological Microbiology, Environmental Microbiology, Food Microbiology, Forensic Microbiology, Molecular Biology
Microorganism & Microbiology cont’d
Two main themes involved in Microbiology
1- Basic- cellular processes
2-Applied- concerning agriculture, industry and health
Themes in Microbiology and its field
Microbiology
The branch of biology concerned with the study of microorganisms and their activities
Microorganisms can be:
unicellular
multicellular
acellular
viruses
viroids
prions-proteinaceous infectious particle
Microorganism
Too small
Germ-rapidly growing cell
Has habitat
Live in population (not alone)
Communities are either swimming freely or attached to a surface (biofilm)
Interact between communities; may either be
- harmful (because of waste product)
- beneficial (cooperative feeding efforts-wasteànutrient)
Occurrence of Microorganisms
Air, water. soil
Food
on the human body
Only 1 in 10 cells of the body is human, the rest are microbial
A square centimeter of skin holds about 100,000 microbes
Humans are free of microbes until they pass through the birth canal
environments
extreme
•
Activities of microorganisms
Destructive
Disease-EIDs (emerging infectious diseases)
Food spoilage
Eutrophication
§Beneficial Activities
- Foods - SCP (single cell protein)
C, N, S, P cycles
Decomposition
Genetic engineering (recombinant DNA technology)
Bioremediation
Microbes in our lives
Microbes and agriculture
Nitrogen fixation
Rumen microbes help digest grass and hay in cows, sheep etc
Cycles nutrients (C, N and S)
Causes disease to animals and plants
Microorganism and Food
•Microorganism and food
1) Prevent spoilage (tempeh, salted fish)
2) Assist in manufacturing of food
•Microorganisms and energy
1) Natural gas (methane)
2) Ethanol (biofuel)
3) Bioremediation
•Microbes and the future
1)Genetic engineering
Microbes and diseases
The Golden Age of Microbiology
~1857-1914 (about 50 years)
Eucaryotes vs Procaryotes
Eucaryotes
True nucleus
nuclear membrane
more than 1 chromosome
chromosome replicated by mitosis
membrane-bound organelles
ex. algae, fungi, protozoa, plants, animals
Eucaryotic Cell
Procaryotes
Nuclear area (nucleoid)
no nuclear membrane
1 chromosome
no mitosis
ribosomes are the only membrane-bound organelles
ex. bacteria ( rickettsia, blue-green algae), archaea
Procaryotic Cell
Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Cells
Prokaryotic cells
No Nucleus
No Organelles
Cell Wall of peptidoglycan
Binary Fission
1 circular chromosome
Eukaryotic Cells
Nucleus
Organelles
If cell wall, Cellulose or chitin
Mitosis
Linear chromosomes
Kelompok mikroorganisme
Kelompok mikroorganisme
bKLASIFIKASI
MIKROORGANISME
b
bTaxonomy
bOrganizing,
classifying and naming living things
bFormal
system originated by Carl von Linné (1701-1778)
bIdentifying
and classifying organisms according to specific criteria
bEach
organism placed into a classification system
b
bTaxonomy
bDomain
bKingdom
bPhylum
bClass
bOrder
bFamily
bGenus
bspecies
b
bBACTERIA
bARCHAEBACTERIA
•Introns in DNA
•Lack peptidogycan in
cell walls
•Live in extreme
environments
bEUBACTERIA
•Includes most bacteria
•Most have one of three
shapes
•May be divided into up
to 12 phyla
•Classification is
controversial
•
bTYPES
OF ARCHAEBACTERIA
bBacteria
Morphological Diversity
bBASIC
SHAPES OF EUBACTERIA
bMost
Species of Eubacteria may be Grouped Based on Staining
bGram-Negative
•Lack thicker layer of peptidoglycan
•Stain pink
•Endotoxins
b
bGram-Positive
•Thicker layer of peptidogycan
•Stain purple
•Exotoxins (released when bacteria die)
bArchaebacteria
bArchaebacteria
bBacterial
Taxonomy Based on Bergey’s Manual
bBergey’s Manual of Determinative
Bacteriology – five volume resource covering all known procaryotes
•classification based on genetic information –phylogenetic
•two domains: Archaea and Bacteria
•five major subgroups with 25 different phyla
bMajor
Taxonomic Groups of Bacteria
bVol 1A: Domain Archaea
•primitive, adapted to extreme habitats and
modes of nutrition
bVol 1B: Domain Bacteria
bVol 2-5:
•Phylum Proteobacteria – Gram-negative cell walls
•Phylum Firmicutes – mainly Gram-positive with low G + C
content
•Phylum Actinobacteria – Gram-positive with high G + C content
bNaming and Classifying microorganisms
• Linnaeus system for scientific nomenclature
•
• Each organism has two names:
b 1) Genus
b 2) Specific epithet
bScientific Names
bItalicized or underlined.
The genus is capitalized, and
the specific epithet is with lowercase
bCould be as an honor for the scientist
b
bA Latin origin
e.g. Escherichia
coli (E.
coli)
- discoverer: Theodor Escherich
- describes the habitat
(colon/intestine)
e.g. Staphylococcus
aureus
(S.
aureus)
- Clustered (staphylo), spherical (cocci)
- Gold colored colonies (aureus)
bBinomial
Nomenclature
bBinomial
Nomenclature
bBinomial
Nomenclature
bTypes of Eukaryotes
bProtozoa
bUnicellular eukaryote
bAbsorb or ingest organic chemicals
bMay move using pseudopods, cilia or flagella
be.g. Amoeba
bAlgae
bUnicellular/multicellular eukaryote
bHas cellulose cell walls
bGain energy through photosynthesis
bProduce molecular and organic compounds
bFungi
(singular: Fungus)
bEukaryotes
bChitin
cell walls
bUse
organic chemicals for energy
bMolds
and mushrooms are multicellular, consists of mycelia (composed of
filaments called hyphae)
bYeasts
are unicellular
b
bMulticellular animal parasites
bHelminths: flatworms and roundworms
bMulticellular
b
bViruses
bToo
small to be observed with light microscope
bConsists
of DNA/RNA core
bCore is
surrounded by protein coat
bCoat
may be enclosed in a lipid envelope
bViruses
are replicated only when they are in living host cell
bBacteriophage-viruses
that infect bacteria
bViroids-nucleic
acid without protein coating
bPrions-
Infectious protenacious
particles
b
•BACTERIOLOGI
•
•
•Rod-Shaped Bacteria
•Spherical Bacteria
•Spiral-Shaped Bacteria
•
•Bacterial Anatomy (Overview)
•Prokaryotic Cells
•Means “before a nucleus”
•Domains Bacteria and Archaea
•Can live in environmental extremes
•Live off diverse energy sources
•
•
•Prokaryotic Structures
•Cytoplasm
–A liquid material that particles
are suspended in
•Ribosomes
–Site of protein synthesis
–Located in cytoplasm
•Nucleoid
–Contains hereditary material
(DNA) of the cell
–Located in cytoplasm
•Prokaryotic Structures
•Plasma membrane
–Encloses the cell
–Regulates material into and out
of cell
•Cell Wall
–Supports cell and determines its
shape
•Capsule
–Slime layer
–Protects
–Helps to not dry out
–Helps attach to other cells
•
•Prokaryotic Structures
•Flagella
–Used to swim/move
–Spins like a propeller or whip
like
•Pilli
–Hair or threadlike structures
–Help stick to other cells for
mating or animal cells for food and protection
•Cytoplasm
•Composed
largely of water, together with proteins, nucleic acid, lipids and small amount
of sugars and salts
•Ribosomes: numerous, 15-20nm in
diameter with 70S; distributed throughout the cytoplasm; sensitive to
streptomycin and erythromycin site of protein synthesis
•Plasmid
•Cell
membrane
•Nucleus
•Lacking nuclear membrane, absence of
nucleoli, hence known as nucleic material or nucleoid, one to several per
bacterium.
•
•Prokaryotic Cell Structure
•Glycocalyx - term to describe substances that
surround bacterial cells
•1. Capsule
–if substance is organized and
firmly attached to cell wall
•2. Slime Layer
–if substance is unorganized and
loosely attached to cell wall
•Capsules and slime layers
•These are structures surrounding the outside of the cell
envelope. They usually consist of polysaccharide; however, in certain bacilli
they are composed of a polypeptide (polyglutamic acid). Capsules are often lost
during in vitro culture.
•
•
•
•
•Flagella consist of a number
of proteins including flagellin
lIdentification of Bacteria
lPathogenesis
lMotility of bacteria
•
•
Motility
•Almost all Spiral bacteria are
motile
•About 1/2 of Bacilli are motile
•Almost all Cocci are non-motile
•Bacteria move toward
attractive stimuli and away from harmful substances and waste products in the
process known as chemotaxis.
•
•
•
•
•Cell Wall
•Main structural component - Peptidoglycan
•
•Peptidoglycan
–repeating dissacharide units
–polypeptides
•
•Bacterial Cell Walls
•Gram (+) Cell Wall
•NAM
N-acetylmuramic acid
•NAG
N- acetylglucosamine
•tetrapeptide side chains
•pentaglycine crossbridges
•teichoic acid
•Gram (-) Cell Wall
•NAM
•NAG
•Tetrapeptide side chains
•pentaglycine
•2nd Outer membrane
–Lipopolysaccharides (LPS)
•Lipid A
•O Antigen
•Functions of Cell
Wall
•Maintaining
the cell's characteristic shape- the rigid wall compensates for the flexibility
of the phospholipid membrane and
keeps the cell from assuming a spherical shape
•Countering
the effects of osmotic pressure
•Providing
attachment sites
for bacteriophages
•Providing
a rigid platform for surface appendages- flagella, fimbriae, and pili all emanate from the wall and extend beyond
it
•Play
an essential role in cell division
•Be
the sites of major antigenic determinants of
the cell surface。
•Resistance
of Antibiotics
•Cell Membrane
(Plasma Membrane)
•2 structural component
–double layer of phospholipids
–proteins
•
•Fluid Mosaic Model
•cytoplasmic membrane
•
•Functions of Cell Membrane
•1. Selective barrier (selectively permeable)
•2. Secretes exoenzymes
–amylases
–lipases
–peptidases
–CAN NOT UNDERGO PHAGOCYTOSIS
•Functions of Cell Membrane
•3. E.T.S. is located here
•4. Enzymes for cell wall synthesis
•5. If photosynthesis, enzymes are located on
membranous structures called thylakoids
•6. Mesosomes - invagination of cell membrane
attached to DNA (Binary Fission)?
•Endospores
(spores)
•
Microscope
•Light Microscope
•Electron Microscope
•Darkfield Microscope
•Phase Contrast Microscope
•Fluorescence Microscope
•Confocal Microscope）
•
•Gram Stain
•1884
Hans Christian Gram
•most
important stain used in Bacteriology
•
•Divides
all Bacteria into 2 groups:
–Gram (+)
–Gram (-)
•
•Results
•Gram (+) Purple
•Gram (-) Red
•Difference - due to structure of cell wall
–Gram (+) Thick cell wall
–Gram (-) Thin cell wall
CHARACTERISTICS OF FUNGI
1. Yeasts
uUnicellular
fungi, nonfilamentous, typically oval or spherical cells. Reproduce by mitosis:
Budding yeasts can form pseudohypha, a short chain of undetached cells.
Candida
albicans invade tissues through pseudohyphae.
uYeasts are
facultative anaerobes, which allows them to grow in a variety of environments.
CHARACTERISTICS OF FUNGI
(Continued)
2. Molds and Fleshy Fungi
uMulticellular,
filamentous fungi.
uIdentified by
physical appearance, colony characteristics, and reproductive spores.
uSeptate hyphae: Cells are divided
by cross-walls (septa).
uCoenocytic (Aseptate) hyphae:
Long, continuous cells that are
not divided by septa.
Hyphae grow by elongating at the
tips.
Each part of a hypha is capable of
growth.
uVegetative Hypha: Portion that
obtains nutrients.
uReproductive or Aerial Hypha:
Portion connected with reproduction.
CHARACTERISTICS OF FUNGI (Continued)
Dimorphic Fungi
uCan exist as
both multicellular fungi (molds) and yeasts.
uMany pathogenic
species.
uDimorphism in
pathogenic fungi typically depends on temperature:
uDimorphism in
nonpathogenic fungi may depend on other factors: Carbon dioxide concentration.
Septate versus Coenocytic
•Spindle pole bodies
sIn fungi that
lack a flagellated stage in lifecycle
•Centrioles
sIn fungi and
other organisms possessing flagellated stage in lifecycle
LIFE CYCLE OF FUNGI
uFilamentous
fungi can reproduce asexually by fragmentation of their hyphae.
uFungal spores are formed from
aerial hyphae and are used for
both sexual and asexual reproduction.
1. Asexual spores:
Formed by the aerial hyphae of one organism. New organisms are identical to parent.
uConidiospore:
Unicellular or multicellular spore that is not enclosed in a sac.
uChlamydospore:
Thick-walled spore formed within a hyphal segment.
uSporangiospore:
Asexual spore formed within a sac (sporangium).
2. Sexual spores:
Formed by the fusion of nuclei from two opposite mating strains of the
same species. New organisms are
different from both parents.
NUTRITIONAL ADAPTATIONS OF FUNGI
Fungi absorb
their food, rather than ingesting it.
uFungi grow
better at a pH of 5, which is too acidic for most bacteria.
uAlmost all molds
are aerobic. Most yeasts are facultative
anaerobes.
uFungi are more
resistant to high osmotic pressure than bacteria.
uFungi can grow
on substances with very low moisture.
uFungi require
less nitrogen than bacteria to grow.
uFungi can break
down complex carbohydrates (wood, paper), that most bacteria cannot.
Zygomycota
§Have
non-septate hyphea
§Have asexual
sporangiospores
§Form sexual zygospores.
§They are large
spores enclosed in a thick wall and formed from the fusion of two cells
§Have septate
hyphae
§Have asexual
conidiospores
§Have sexual ascospores. Ascospores result from the fusion of nuclei
of two cells. They are produced in a
sac-like structure called an ascus.
§Basidiomycota
Have septate hyphae, asexual conidiospores
Have sexual basidiospores. Basidiospores are formed externally on a base pedestal called a basidium
Have septate hyphae, asexual conidiospores
Have sexual basidiospores. Basidiospores are formed externally on a base pedestal called a basidium
§Based on type of hyphae (septate versus non-septate)
§Based on color of mycelium
§Based on reproductive structures
§Molds may form either sexual or asexual spores
§Sexual spores are formed from the fusion of nuclei from
two opposite mating strains of the same species. They are only formed under special
conditions, but they are used to classify fungi (more on this later)
§Asexual spores, which are most commonly used in
identification, are formed by the aerial mycelium of a single organism by
mitosis and cell division
w
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF FUNGI
u25-50% of
harvested fruits and vegetables are
damaged by fungi.
uFungal
infections of plants are commonly called rots, rusts, blights, wilts, and
smuts.
u Beneficial
fungi:
